Dimensions of Organisational Misbehaviour

Dimensions of Organisational Mis behaviourCritically discuss the balances where organisational misbehavior is gougeed. Use relevant academic references and organisational examples to illustrate.Whilst the subject of organisational behaviour has been widely studied, as a system for improving the performance of organisations and improving the level of managerial control, organisational misbehavior has received considerably less attention. Indeed, Ambrose et al (2002) argue that there is little agreement nearly the dominant motives of sabotage which Ackroyd and Thompson (1999) cite as being the most hostile example of appropriation of work. This makes it somewhat difficult to accurately assess and discuss the dimensions where much(prenominal) misbehaviour is actually rooted, with the majority of the literature focusing on the impacts and manifestations of organisational behaviour, rather than the root causes. In spite of these difficulties, this piece will attempt to unc everypla ce the dimensions where organisational behaviour is rooted, through a detailed analysis and interpretation of the literature around organisational misbehaviour.One of the most raise explanations comes from Spicer and Bohm (2007) who argue that organisational misbehaviour is patently an opposite unmatchable of the methods through which workers can resist the hegemony of management. As such, this view of organisational misbehaviour fits it within the general framework of worker resistance, which includes trade unions and civic movements. Indeed, Spicer and Bohm (2007) argue that these forms of resistance solo differ in terms of whether they take place inside or outside the workplace, and whether they are conducted inside or outside the organisational and societal norms. As such, star of the dimensions where organisational misbehaviour is rooted is arguably in the fact that managers bring such absolute control over workers that workers will naturally tend to look for a way to reg ain some of this control. Organisational misbehaviour may simply be a method for achieving this for workers whose concerns are not met by unions or civil movements.Boddy (2006) looks at another potential cause the presence of so called organisational psychopaths, who are determined to make life difficult and exploit the organisations and corporations which employ them. Their study indicates that organisational psychopaths make up around one per cent of the employable population but, similar to societal psychopaths, are almost undetectable to employers and co workers. As such, they manage to present themselves as being desirable employees, in order to obtain valuable positions within organisations. Their psychopathic nature means that they have no conscience, and hence are ordain to lie, charm and manipulate their way through an organisation, in order to pursue their ultimate goals. These may be to obtain power and status, or may simply be to obtain as much wealth as easily as possi ble. As such, they tend to create the majority of organisational misbehaviour, using tools such as fraud, stock manipulation, theft, lying and other methods. In the worst case, such psychopaths can rise to the top of a major corporation, and hence the entire organisation indulges in misbehaviour designed to benefit itself at the expense of society (Boddy, 2006).Everton et al (2005) provide a different argument, claiming that whilst some employees will simply misbehave, due to mess or a lack of morals, the majority of organisational misbehaviour occurs in response to unfair managerial policies. Indeed, their initial case study demonstrates how previously responsible and high school performing employees can be turned to organisational misbehaviour, such as the appropriation of time, by poor quality supervision. Their other research to a fault demonstrates how Robinson and Bennetts (1995) typology of organisational misbehaviour can be used to support a correlation between management styles and fairness, and organisational misbehaviour. Whilst, this study runs into significant difficulties as a result of the difficulties in separating documented issues, such as illness, from organisational misbehaviour, such as calling in sick. However, it also points out significant variations in rates of theft, turnover and aggression, and indicates that these variations can largely be explained by the level of fairness displayed by managers, and the amount of organisational justice present in the organisation (Everton et al, 2005). As such, the level of fairness and justice can be seen as a significant dimension where organisational misbehaviour is rooted.Gruys and Sackett (2003) also revealed three further dimensions in which organisational misbehaviour was rooted. The first two of these stemmed from the results of their study into the root causes, and showed that the interpersonal and organisational relationships were a key driver of organisational misbehaviour, as was the task relevance. This indicates that the relationships that employees hold with their co workers, and the organisation as a whole, are key drivers of organisational misbehaviour if an employee does not get on well with their co workers, they are more likely to let them down by skipping work or other forms of misbehaviour. Also, as was also shown by Everton et al (2005), giving an employee a task which is not relevant to their skills or interests is more likely to increase their level of misbehaviour and discontent. However, one interesting finding which was not part of the actual study was the discovery of general positive correlations between all different types of organisational misbehaviour. This tends to indicate that initial misbehaviour leads to more, potentially more serious, offences. For example, an employee who successfully claims one fake sick day may be encouraged to claim more, and may then move on to other offences such as theft and fraud (Gruys and Sackett, 2003).Anot her potential dimension comes from the public sector in the UK, where government reforms of the NHS have led to doctors becoming increasingly responsible for the overall management of the hospital. As a result of this role confusion, and workload increase, many doctors have begun to engage in what could be referred to as organisational misbehaviour (Forbes et al, 2004). In particular, this can involve breaches of management expectations, and a move towards getting even, when these breaches occur. However, this type of misbehaviour tended to be strongly dependent on the nature of in individual, with some doctors actively pursuing their management responsibilities, and others merely assuming management roles out of a belief that they must, or that if they did not they would fall under the cast of less capable managers. As such, the ones who reluctantly assumed managerial roles were more likely to poor relationships with hospital managers, as a result of their unwillingness commisera te and fulfil their dual responsibilities (Forbes et al, 2004). This indicates that role confusion can be a contributor to organisational misbehaviour, for certain types of people.Finally, Johnson and Indvik (2001) provide a potentially more mundane dimension along which some transitory organisational misbehaviour, such as incivility and anger, can be rooted. Their data implies that factors such as workplace stress and a shun of the actual act of working can encourage incivility, and sometimes hostility, towards co workers. Whilst these issues have not been proven to lead to more serious forms of organisational misbehaviour, given that Gruys and Sackett (2003) have shown that misbehaviour tends to breed further misbehaviour, it is clear that even minor forms of misbehaviour such as these need to be addressed or they can riddle throughout an organisation.In conclusion, there are a variety of dimensions within which organisational misbehaviour is rooted, some of which are internal t o the organisation, and some of which are simply constitutional to the particular individual, such as an unwillingness to undertake a certain role, or even organisational psychopathy. In addition, the literature has shown that even minor concerns, such as stress or dislike of work, can lead to initial organisational misbehaviour, and this misbehaviour can then potentially spiral and trigger more serious misbehaviour. As such, it is important for any organisation to do as much as possible to minimise the managerial and organisational factors which create and exacerbate organisational misbehaviour.ReferencesAckroyd, S. and Thompson, P. (1999) Organisational Misbehaviour. London Sage Publications Ltd.Ambrose, M. L. Seabright, M. A. and Schminkec, M. (2002) corrupt in the workplace The role of organizational injustice. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes Vol. 89, p. 947-965.Boddy, C. R. (2006) The dark side of management decisions organisational Psychopaths. Managemen t Decision Vol. 44, Issue 10, p. 1461-1475.Everton, W. J. Jolton, J. A. and Mastrangelo, P. M. (2005) Be nice and fair or else understanding reasons for employees deviant behaviours. Journal of Management Development Vol. 26, Issue 2, p. 117-131.Forbes, T. Hallier, J. and Kelly, L. (2004) Doctors as managers investors and reluctants in a dual role. Health service Management Research Vol. 17, Issue 3, p. 167-176.Gruys, M. L. and Sackett, P. R. (2003) Investigating the Dimensionality of Counterproductive Work Behaviour. International Journal of Selection and Assessment Vol. 11, Issue 1, p. 30-42.Johnson, P. R. and Indvik, J. (2001) Rudeness and Work Impulse over Restraint. Public Personnel Management Vol. 30, Issue 4, p. 457-465.Robinson, S. and Bennett, R. (1995) A typology of deviant workplace behaviors a multidimensional scaling study. Academy of Management Journal Vol. 38, Issue 2, p. 555-72.Spicer, A. and Bhm, S. (2007) Moving Management Theorizing Struggles against the Hegemony of Management. Organization Studies Vol. 28, Issue 11, p. 1667-1698.

Ethical and Legal Issues in Nursing

Ethical and Legal Issues in NursingINTRODUCTIONEthical and Legal Issues in Nursing are applicable for any nurse, from enlightened to expert. They are oftentimes diged as the abidely part of nursing. This assignment w adversity discover estimable and legal implication of the nurse who disguises the selective information of the lethal ill tolerant at the request of his family. The family does not want the nurse to notify the patient astir(predicate) the lethal spirit of his disease. The family also propensitys that the nurse should not secernate the patient about the medications prescribed to him.Johnstone (2011, p 21) says that nursing headmaster is very uncertain. The nurse is al manners in dilemma whether she should cooperate with the family or not. Now the questions that arises here is that if the nurse does not disclose the truth to the patient and so what would be the legal implications. Moreover, the nurse is uncertain whether she would go after the hankeringes o f the family or not. In the chase discussion, I will look at the ethical principles and legal implications of hiding information from the patient and administering morphine without his information or approval.PALLIATIVE CARE fit to WHO, alleviant superintend is defined as an approach that helps in improving the quality of life of the patients and their families facing the problem associated with life-threatening disease. Patients need a palliative get by to support their long and slow treatment procedure Tang, (2006, p. 360). It is focused on providing comfort and relief from the pain and the other distressing symptoms of a sedate illness. It integrates the psychological and spiritual aspects of patient forethought. It offers a support system that helps patients to be lively as much as possible until death. It also provides a hearty support to the family to compete up with the patient illness and also includes bereavement support for the family.Palliative care uses a team ap proach to cover the ask of the patients and their families. It is a team based effort of care giving and it is also responsible for initiating the concept of dedicated palliative care development team. The team includes atomic number 101, nurse, rub down therapists, nutritionists and pharmacists. A number of checkup professionals from different fields of medical exam sciences are constantly working on developing and designing new mea veritables to provide the outmatch palliative care to the patients who are ache from serious illness. All the principles of the palliative care must be applied from the time of diagnosis. Palliative care is often associated with terminal diseases like Cancer and AIDS solely now the concept has been changed. in that location are various palliative regimes which are applicable for other diseases, much(prenominal)(prenominal) as cardiac or renal disease, so as to help the patient to cope with the suffering (Johnson et al. 2011). Sometimes, a term Long term care is used to describe the palliative care.ETHICAL PRINCIPLES(Hodkinson 2008) state thatThe therapeutic nature of this nursepatient relationship is a central concept in nursing. The around important issues related to this bond are disclosure of truth, kindness and communication. The patients who are suffering from terminal illness generally prefer to hear the truth but they wish it to listen to it in a receptive way (Maria, Ann Anna 2011).Autonomy The main principle of autonomy is that the patient should have adequate information about his condition so as to make a signifi foundationt choice of treatment (Moulton King 2010). The nurse should properly converse with the patient and make sure that the patient is well aware of all available treatment options (Johnstone 2011). (Collis 2006) suggested that before disclosing the information to family members it is must to seek the patients consent. It expresses the respect for their autonomy. The nurse should consider patie nts autonomy before administering morphine.(Starzomski 2009) noted,Patients and families from diverse communities have different beliefs about autonomy and may not envision disclosure of information in the same way as their wellness care providers. In these cases this is an area that needs to be care proficienty explored with patients to ensure their wishes are respected and they are include in the information process in the way that they wish to be. In this scenario nurse should communicate with the family members in enounce to convince and find out their favored way to disclose the diagnosis and prognosis of disease.Beneficence- The principal of beneficence as a do good describes applications of interventions that are carried out by nurse and atomic number 101 for the benefit of patient .It also include the protection of pay of health service consumer (Staunton Chiarella 2008). Health professional should treat the person autonomously and prevent him/her from harm and care provider should also aware of legal implication of action taken(Ulysse, Balicas Yiquing 2011). Telling truth is not harmful for patient it will cause the peaceful death(OSullivan 2009). The health professional should motivate the family introducing them the benefit of therapeutic discloser and harmful effects of concealing information e.g. administer medication without consent.Justice -Justice described as treat everyone evenly and fairly. It is a primary phenomena in resolving ethical dilemmas .It required to be supplemented by providing good care to health service user (Botes 2000).In order to apply justice health professionals provide care evenly to all the patients in hospital not patient and family.Non maleficience This principle is based on the phenomena of does no harm for example in health care when privacy hard to maintain for research or study purpose then health professional ensure that they do not disclose the patients personal details .This principal helps in preven t the occurrence and possibilities of harm. Nurse should access the jeopardy of interventions that she /he is doing.(Ford Reutter 1990) .It also refrain the nurse from the intentional commission of a wrongful act.(Carlson et al. 2010)In many communities for instance Muslim and Indian cultures diseases are perceive as a family matter. Decision making is also family centered so withholding truth is not rare practice. Therefore beneficence and non-malfeasance play vital role in their moral values as compare to patient right to consent in western countries (Pentheny et al ,2011).It is also encouraged that in case of a dilemma a professional should seek help from their regulatory body or councils which can guide them towards a legally and ethically rightful path Hui, (2010, p.76).LEGAL AND ETHICAL IMPLICATIONSEthics and legal implications are very closely related with each other. Ethics deal with the standards of conduct and ethical judgement whereas legal issues deal with nursing pra ctise which includes licensing, nurse practice acts and standards of care (Chaloner 2007).According to Criminal Code (Palliative Care) Amendment Bill 2003,Section 282A does not speech communication consent. The administration of medical treatment including palliative care is already governed by a legal regime. If a person has capacity to decide their medical care the patient will consent to their medical treatment. Unauthorised administration of medical treatment would be assault.AMA Queensland emphasize that health professionals should respect the autonomy terminally ill patients in order to refusal and acceptance of their medical treatments.Ethical and legal implications in palliative care are very significant because it is an end head treatment where majority of patient are moving towards an impending death. It is a legal right of every Australian citizen to have complete and correct information about their medical berth. Because of this entitlement professionals delivering pa lliative care and family members of the patient involves in legal and ethical dilemma. Where they are not sure which course of action would be seize in both ethical as well as legal manner. Due to these legal issues and emotional disturbances families of the patient and patient itself undergo a draw play of stress and psychological trauma. It is also agreed by many experts of palliative care that increased stress would also impact the ability of the patient to cope with the trauma Oonagh (2009, p.123).In this case study patient is facing an impending death from cancer and terminal diagnosis of cancer which will brings her life to the end. This force in deteriorating in her physical health and she may ask question about her situation and prognosis of the disease. With an adult patient it is relatively important to register the concept of death and disease and they can take a realistic approach towards it by spending their remaining time in a full-bodied manner saying good bye to dear ones and taking care of all formalities before meeting a demises. (ACMA 2011). It is very complicated to produce the information opposite to relatives desires (Cavanna et al ,2009)In this scenario, the wishes of the family to hide information from the patient is not unusual.Ethically it looks wrong for a health care practitioner to lie to the patients regarding her medical situation and not inform her about her forthcoming death. There might be things which she wants to do before dying if she would have been informed. There is also legal implication with the fact that a patient is being treated without her consent and it is also violation of the law which throw offs a patient right to refusal for treatment on her body. For example many patients want to sign DNR (Do Not Resuscitate) forms to ensure that no attempts should be made to revive them if they are close to death. In this case study patient is being denied of this right as well Hanson (2002). If by family here it is implied that her legal guardian wishes to keep this information hidden from the patient, then according to Giacalone (2007, p.368) the nurse is not legally bound to honour their desires to do so would run counter to the law etc.Prima Facie it is a cod case of violation of constitutional rights of a patient if nursing professional does not inform the patient about her medical condition and learn her desire and judgment in designing and developing her future treatment and palliative care plan. According to Australian constitutional law the patient have the archetypal right on information regarding his medical condition and it is on his discretion that with whom this information should be shared. If a patient expressively states that he doesnt wish to share his medical information with his family then it is legal obligation of hospital and medical professional to maintain the wish of the patient. Law handbook Victoria recognizes some other law governing certain aspect of hospital ca re and ethical issue. This law is known as fasten patient confidentiality law this state that medical practitioner doctor, nurse or a paramedical personnel cannot divulge information about his patient to a non related person or a person without patients medical attorney until and unless directed by the court of law. . This regulation ensures that dignity and privacy of the patient is maintained and there is no legal or ethical negligence from the doctor in the entire transaction Vickers, (2004, p.232).SOLUTIONS AND BEING ETHICALLY RIGHTIn the past years, the physicians were very antipathetical to tell the truth to their patients regarding their existing health conditions. On the other hand, in these times the patients do want their physicians to tell them the truth about the diagnosis and the medical therapies. According a survey conducted almost three decades ago, it has been cleared that 97% of the physicians felt that it is correct to tell the truth to the patients regarding a ll the relevant aspects of their illness which includes the nature of the illness and its expected outcomes. Sometimes it is seen that there is psychological impact on the patients mindset and its really hard for them to cope with such a stressful situation (Kendall 2006). In such a situation, palliative care specialists can be proved quite helpful as they can provide resources to help the patient and his family deal with emotions that come with a serious illness. They may provide counseling, organize family meeting or make referrals to mental health professionals if needed (Bush Bruni 2008). However, if the conditions are presented in an undignified manner then it is possible that it may create a negative picture of the situation in the patients mind and in that case it is obvious that the sufferings and stress of the patient would increase instead of decreasing and the patient may lose the hope to live (Li et al. 2008). Tuckett suggests that it is necessary to understand the ment al state of the patient before passing on the entire information to him. The final decision is made by the doctor and his medical team regarding the disclosure of the truth to the patient after analyzing all his mental status (2012). Even the court of law has approved this argument that if the doctor and his medical team prove with an evidence that the information would have a devastating effect on the patient then they have a full power to hide the information from the patient or they reveal the truth to the patient when they believe it is appropriate time to tell Seymour (2004, p. 165). On the other hand, it may be possible that the patient does not want to listen to the information regarding his health but in such a situation it is the duty of the physician to provide the basic information to the patient (council 2004).IMPACT ON NURSING PRACTICEWhen the medical practitioners communicate with the patients, being honest is a fundamental way to develop trust and respect for the pati ent. Patients show a great deal of trust in their physician and they may feel deceived if they discover that there is insufficiency of honesty by the physician. But, sometimes a situation arises when the physician thinks that disclosure would create a harmful effect on the patient and it may be validated to hold back the truthful information in that case. (Robinson January-February) explains that sometimes holding back the truthful information from patient may lead to quality of regret in the health care providers. It can also be one of the main reasons of moral distress on them. (Goethals, Gastmans de Casterl 2010) state that many a times the moral distress may lead to less involvement of nurse in his work. It can also cause some kinds of health problems which may eventually leads to resignation from job. Ulysses et al (2011) asserts that in health practise the therapeutic nondisclosure may lead to frustration which in turn affects the practitioners certificate of indebtedness towards his patient and his family.CONCLUSIONMany types of complex situations are often faced by several nurses throughout their professional life. Some professionals consider such types of suffering more badly than death. It is totally unfair to withhold the truth from the patient about his existing health conditions, especially when the patient is capable enough to give the consent about various medications and procedures. According to the constitution of Australia, it is not at all acceptable to claim the life of a person for any medical reason and direct any medications without his consent. This case study has proved very beneficial in developing a very in depth appreciation of the various medical laws and legal problems which are faced by the health professionals. It should be the duty of every medical professional that in any situation he should not break any of the legal obligations. It also provides detailed information about the various significant steps that should be tak en to handle these types of ethical dilemmas.

A literature review on corporate social responsibility

A literature review on somatic friendly function corporate Social Responsibility has earned much salience everyplace the last decades in academic literature. The literature offers heterogeneous interpretations of the concept of corporate tender responsiveness. The concept is understood as a process or set of processes on the way a incorruptible approaches its environment. It is argued that fear and parliamentary law be interlacing beau monde has certain expectations regarding strain and therefore the firm has responsibilities towards society. Hence, being a steward of the needs of society is deemed to be a soci onlyy responsible, appropriate, and natural act.The archetypical book acknowledged on CSR is the Social Responsibilities of the Businessman by Howard R. Bowen in the mid 1950s. But, the term CSR came in widespread use of goods and services in the early 1970s. In fact, it owes its origin due to the globalisation which took place after umpteen multinational smok es were tuneed. In brief, globalisation means an increase in external transactions in markets for goods, services and factors of production and a growth in institutions that straddle international barriers. All these developments have brought in force the corporate governance mechanisms to ascertain uprightness and transp arncy as well as social obligation. Thus, this is how CSR was shaped and came into existence in the corporate world.2.1.1 CSR across CountriesCSR, also kn declare as corporate responsibility, corporate citizenship, responsible business, sustainable responsible business (SRB), or corporate social performance, is all but a form of corporate self-regulation integrated into a business feigning where companies manold age the business processes to produce an overall peremptory impact on society. CSR has been delimit in various ways in different countries, of most being the capacity building for sustainable livelihoods from Ghana to ab come to the fore giving back to society from Philippines.Conventionally, in the United States, CSR has been presented in a philanthropic sham whereby companies make profits and then they donate a certain sh ar of the profits to charitable causes. It is seen as tainting the act for the company to receive any advantage from the giving. As such, according to Caroll (2003), The social responsibility of business encompasses the economic, legal, ethical and discretionary (philanthropic) expectations that society has of organisations at a given point in time.The European model is much more chargeed on opemilitary rating the core business in a socially responsible way, complemented by investment funds in communities for solid business case primers and voluntary interaction with the stakeholders. Ideally and broadly, the concept of CSR is a built-in, self-regulating mechanism whereby business would monitor and figure its support to law, ethical standards, and international norms.2.1.1 Views on CSRAccording to Hanc ock (2005), CSR nookie be viewed by means of 3 ways namelySceptic viewAccording to this view, the notion of CSR is opposed to body politic and freedom, frustrating business focus on its purpose of wealth creation. Milton Friedman best defines this approach Few trends would so thoroughly undermine the very compriseations of free society as the acceptance by corporate officials of a social responsibility other than to make as much money for their stockholders as they possibly stern. Utopian viewA utopian view of CSR reflects the idea that companies have a prior duty to anyone touched by their activity, their stakeholders rather than their shareholders, and especially the vulnerable that whitethorn be exploited by the companys operation. This is based on the work of Evan and Freeman who are for the stakeholder theory where a corporation essential recognise and respect the live interests of each of its surrounding stakeholders.Realist viewThis view gathers the greatest following of an alliance model advocated by Patricia Werhane. It states that CSR is not simply about whatever funds and expertness companies choose to invest in communities to help resolve social problems. But, it is also about the integrity with which a company governs itself, fulfils its mission, lives by its values, engages with its stakeholders, measures its impacts and reports on its activities.2.1.2 The Key DriversCSR is seen by Porter and Van Der Linde (2000, p. 131) as a agonistical driver that requires appropriate resources. CSR programs, however, on their own, have certain main drivers which are as follow throne Line EffectThis is the most relevant driver of CSR programmes as it incorporates a socially responsible element into corporate practice. As John Elkington (1997) rightly underlined that legion(predicate) companies exhibit corporate citizenship through charity or philanthropy. Nevertheless, a new perspective evolved over time for around corporate stakeholders. Success of a corporation is now weighted and defined by evaluating businesses employ a Triple Bottom Line comprised of its social, environmental and financial performance.Managing RiskAn endeavour to adopt CSR programme has been the gain in market share, key personnel and investment which pioneering companies enjoy when they seriously address labour and green issues. In fact, corporations implement such a programme to manage risks and ensure legal compliance as denoted by Levine Michael A. (2008). They try to avoid investigation, litigation, prosecution, regulation or legislation.Influence of the Corporate DisastersThere has been an increase perception of greed amidst senior business officials in the corporate world following corporate scandals affecting Enron, WorldCom and the like. CSR is important in counteracting allegations of corporate greed. As a result, as described by Hancock (2005) in his book, corporations are now shifting away from the philanthropic approach towards CSR and are mo ving towards the greater concurrence of CSR with business strategy and corporate governance.Lower Equity Risk Premium Reputation ManagementCorporations can face economic damage when their corporate dispositions and brands are assailed or sales are affected by consumer boycotts. As argued by some rating agencies, a comprehensive CSR programme leave alone lower a companys equity risk premium. A direct correlation between reputation and financial outcome measures share price and credit rating (Hancock, 2005) has been illustrated through a model designed by the global public relations company Bell Pottinger. In fact, companies may face a variety of legal and reputational risks if they do not have adequate social compliance or corporate social responsibility/sustainability programs in place.Customer LoyaltyIn todays markets, companies have to focus on building and maintaining customer loyalty. As proposed by Zhou Y. (2009), this can be done through a CSR programme which builds lo yalty with customers by pass a combative advantage in a marketplace where consumers find ethically delivered or produced goods and services.Stakeholder Activism Investment IncentivesAs perceived by Visser, W. (2008), CSR is encouraged through the activism of stakeholder or pressure groups which often address the alleged failure of the market and government policy. The trend of socially responsible investment gives CSR an incentive where funds are screened on ethical, social and environmental criteria. Thus, this proactively encourages businesses to inform shareholders of electromotive force risks and issues and it helps them to wear out understand their stakeholders, including shareholders. According to Hill Knowltown (2006), surveys have indicated that analysts place as much importance on corporate reputation as they do on financial performance.2.2 Theoretical ReviewA theoretical framework can be constructed around the some(prenominal) theories that emerged to explain the re asons behind environmental reporting over the time. These are as followOperational Efficiency TheoryOperational Efficiency occurs when the right conclave of people, process, and technology to boost the productivity and value of any business operation, while reducing cost of routine operations to a in demand(p) level. In the circumstance of CSR, operational efficiencies can be achieved through managing impending risks and liabilities more effectively and efficiently through CSR tools and perspectives by reducing costs streaming information to stakeholders concerning the investment community for better transparency and by using corporate responsibility and sustainability approaches within business decision-making to result in new market opportunities, newly real manufacturing processes that can be expanded to other plants, regions or markets.Social Contract TheoryThis theory dates from the classic period of history but it took its modern form between the sixteenth and eighteen cen turies with the best known philosophers like Thomas Hobbes, John Locke and Jean Jacques Rousseau who talk on social contract. Rousseau, in fact, conceptualised the individual-society relationship as a symbiotic situation whereby the two stopies mutually confer some right to the state in order to maintain social order which makes kind-hearted life and cohabitation better and to gain benefits of community and safety. In parallel to the social contract, the corporate social theory, pertaining to a firms indirect social obligations, has been advanced as a theoretical basis to explain the practise of CSR by corporations. Accordingly, businesses are bound by the social contract whereby they consent to perform various socially desired actions in return for approval of their objectives and other rewards. This ultimately guarantees its continued existence.Legitimacy TheoryThe theory is close to the social contract theory. Here, the corporations constantly seek to ensure that they operate w ithin the limits and norms of their respective societies and the remote parties perceive their activities as being legitimate.Society grants legitimacy and power to business. In the long run, those who do not use power in a manner which society considers responsible will tend to lose it. This tenet developed by Daviss (1973) is commonly known as the Iron Law of Responsibility. It expresses legitimacy as a societal-level concept and describes the responsibility of business as a social institution that must(prenominal) avoid abusing its power. Thus, this principle expresses a prohibition rather than an affirmative duty, and it applies equally to all companies, regardless of their particular circumstances.According to A.K.H. Khor, the legitimacy theory is fundamentally a system-oriented theory where organisations are viewed as components of the larger social environment within which they exist.Stakeholder TheoryA key feature of CSR involves the way that a company engages, involves, and collaborates with its stakeholders including shareholders, employees, debt-holders, suppliers, customers, communities, non-governmental organisations, and governments. Companies can use stakeholder mesh topology to internalise societys needs, hopes, circumstances into their corporate views and decision-making. While there are many questions about how far a companys responsibilities extend into communities relative to the roles of governments and individual citizens, there is a strong argument that CSR can effectively improve a companys relations with communities and thereby produce some key features that will improve business prospects for its future. deputation TheoryThis theory comes to explain the relationship that exists between the owners/shareholders and the management. As such the latter is the agent which appointed by the principal (owner/subsidiary) and problems such as the potential moral hazard and conflict of interest are likely to occur. CSR comes as a middle way s o that both parties can maximise their gains. As such, when CFP is strong, managers may reduce social expenditures in order to maximise their own short term private gains whereas when CFP weakens, managers will try to offset their disappointing results by engaging in conspicuous social programs, hence careen magnitude their own wealth and that of shareholders as well, pursuant to the managerial opportunism hypothesis by Preston OBannon (1997).2.2.1 Corporate Social Performance (CSP)In todays competitive market environment, business is confronted with a new set of challenges that are not only economics- colligate. To survive and prosper, firms must noseband economic and social systems. Maximising shareholder wealth is a necessary but by no means sufficient condition for financial prosperity anymore. A new performance measure called corporate social performance (abbreviated as CSP) is employ to capture the performance of a business in the social realm allowing us to be more prec ise in thinking about corporate social responsibility.CSP defined as a business organizations mannikin of principles of social responsibility, processes of social responsiveness, and policies, programs, and observable outcomes as they relate to the firms societal relationships ( woods, 1991), clearly shows that social performance is not limited to corporations only, but also applies to any firm and organisation.2.2.2 Corporate Financial Performance (CFP)Most of the businesses operate with a view of yielding profits. The financial performance of a company is reflected through its policies and operations in monetary terms. These results are reflected through its return on investment, return on assets, value added, return on sale and growth in sales. Managers work in the best interest of shareholders to maximise profits. Financial performance is the most common, however, it cannot be considered as the only indicator used to measure a firms wealth. A broader rendering of financial per formance is accompanied by additional indicators such as short-term profits, long-term profits, market value, and other forms of competitive advantage, as noted by Jensen (2001). In todays world, for a firm to achieve a good and high level of CSP, it has to go beyond the limits of its own corporate strategies and adopt views of other stakeholders who may be directly or indirectly related to the company.2.2.3 Corporate Social Performance and Corporate Financial PerformanceSince over the three decades, the study of the correlation between corporate social performance (CSP) and corporate financial performance (CSF) has gained much salience. Many studies conducted in this effect have yielded positive correlation, while others produced hostile results with ostracize or non- pregnant different causal directions being found. In effect, there are several competing theoretical models which are proposed to explain three varying findings on the CSP-CFP link. Owing to these differing relation ships, I.Y. Maroam (2006) proposes a unified theory of the CSP-CFP link that explain the different relationships that may be observed between CSR and CFP, thus basing itself on the parallels between the business and CSR domains.The concept of CSR instils in corporations the moral responsibility towards society that go beyond the goal of simply making profits for their owners and shareholders (Berman et al., 1999). As Freeman (1984) rightly pointed out that corporations should be socially responsible for both moral and practical (instrumental) reasons, by reflecting a socially responsible posture, a corporation can enhance its own performance. Thus, CSR activities can, inter-alia, be rewarded with more satisfied customers, better employee, improved reputation, and improved access to financial markets, all pertaining to improving financial performance and sustain the business. However, social accomplishments may equally involve certain financial costs which can effectively reduce prof its and comparative performance. Hence, Vance (1975) came up with the trade-off hypothesis to show negative linkage between CSP and CFP whereby corporations displaying strong social credentials experience declining stock prices relative to the market average.2.2.3.1 CSP as Business StrategicFrom the above, it is clear that CSP can be used as a business strategy which can contribute to the competitive advantage of firms. A study by N.A. Dentchey (2004) on the effects of CSP on the competitiveness of organisations reveals that CSP should not be thought of an innocent adventure for executives. It is rather a strategy for achieving corporate strategies, which if not carefully implemented, may harm the competitive advantage of the firm.Competitive advantage, as seen by Porter (1996), denotes the ability of a company to outperform others from successful differentiation from rivals actions. This strategic fit between the outside environment and companies internal resources and capabilities (Hoskissoon et al., 1999) results in superior financial results, as indicated by various measures of profitability. Hence, as per Burke and Logsdon (1996), a strategic implementation of social responsibility brings benefits for all since it results in strategic outcomes such as customer loyalty, future purchases, new products, new markets and productivity gains. Arguably, CSP can be a source of competitive disadvantage for firms which regard CSP as an additional cost. Business contributions to social prosperity (CSP) are seen by Keim (1978, p.33) as an investment in public good which is consumed or enjoyed by a number of individuals disregarding the cost sharing. Thus, investing in CSP is likely to bear negative effects for the firms which are incurring costs that faculty otherwise be avoided or that should be borne by others, for example, individuals or government (Aupperle et al., 1985).2.2.4 CSP, CFP and the Stakeholder TheoryFollowing the above arguments, a new perspective of CSP, based on the stakeholder analysis, emerges to argue furthermore that there exists a positive relationship between CSP and financial performance. As such, S.A. Waddock and S.B. grave (1997) propose that a tension exists between the firms clear costs (for instance, payments to bondholders) and its implicit costs to other stakeholders (for example, product quality costs, and environmental costs). Therefore, a firm which tries to outweigh its translucent costs by increasing its socially responsible actions incurs higher implicit costs, resulting in competitive advantage. Thus, high levels of CSP are seen as indicators of superior management by Alexander and Buchholz (1982) which lead to lower explicit costs and enhanced financial performance.The stakeholder theory accompanies the concept of CSR by shedding more light on the issue of social responsibility. This theory is spread over three aspects (Donaldson and Preston, 1995) namely, descriptive, instrumental and normative. While the descriptive aspect describes and explains the theory, the instrumental aspect discloses the cause-effect relationships between stakeholder management practices and improving corporate performance. The normative aspect, on the other hand, as perceived by I.Y. Maroam (2006) emphasizes on the moral imperatives for practising stakeholder management, rather than the business benefits it may provide. A parallelism between the core business domain and the CSR domain will maximise a firms profitability.The stakeholder theory provides a framework for investigating the relationship between CSP and CFP by examining how a throw in CSP is related to a change in financial accounting measures. In fact, the two concepts of CSR and stakeholder share the proposition that social responsibility affects financial performance in some way or other. This subject area has been so vastly explored that this trend is now seen as a natural progression which goes associatively with developments in the indu strial and business world. There is an increasing concern and emphasize on humanity, environmental preservation and enlightened social consciousness. Thus, a new area of research began to pave its way within the electron orbit of business and society where the relationship between corporate social conduct, both toward the corporations stakeholders and the wider society, and the corporations financial performance was and is still being investigated across several countries. Over environmental issues, research has revealed that businesses which are eco-friendly and demonstrate good CSR practices enjoy increased consumer purchase preference (Gildea, 1994 Zaman, 1996) and good economic performance (Al-Tuwaijiri, et al., 2004).A stakeholder group, as identified and defined by Freeman (1984), is one that that can affect or is affected by achievement of the organisations objectives, that is, which can be harmed as well as can help it to achieve its goals. Therefore, there is a growing nee d for firms to address the needs and expectations of the stakeholders to avoid negative outcomes and produce positive outcomes for themselves (Donaldson and Preston, 1995 Freeman, 1984 Frooman, 1997). Pursuant to the stakeholder theory perspective, CSP can be assessed in terms of a company meeting the demands of multiple stakeholders, ranging from cost minimisation to societal maximisation. Building on the previous mentioned definition of CSP, Wood and Jones (1995) propose that stakeholder theory is the key to understanding the structure and dimensions of the firms societal relationships. This theory thereby assumes that firms are responsible for honouring all the implicit and explicit contracts they hold with their various constituents.Therefore, the stakeholder theory provides a system-based perspective of the organisation and its stakeholders where it acknowledges the dynamic and complex nature of the interplay between them. The various stakeholders of the firms, such as the empl oyees, shareholders/ financers, environmentalists, government, communities, customers and even competitors should be convinced by the management that it is working harder to satisfy them. The more important the stakeholders to the firm, the more effort the firm needs to put to uphold its relationship with the former. According to Clarkson, Donaldson and Preston et al. (1995), the stakeholder theory must place shareholders as one of the multiple stakeholder groups which managers should consider in their decision-making process. However, like the shareholders, the other stakeholders may have a say upon the firm, bestowing societal legitimacy. Notably, Bernadette M. Ruf et al. (2001) asserted that firms must address these non-shareholder groups demands otherwise they might face negative confrontations which can ultimately result in diminished shareholder value, through boycotts, lawsuits, protests and so on. Hence, firms have a fiduciary duty relationship not only to the shareholders, but to all stakeholders (Hasnas, 1998, p.32).So far, recognising a companys contractual relationship with the various stakeholders has been instrumental in better comprehending the relationship that CSP and CFP share. Stakeholders have expectations from the organisation. Nevertheless, these expectations may conflict with the firms limited resources leading the firm to evaluate its costs and benefits tradeoffs. Firms must thus come with measures representative of the various factors of CSP and stakeholders interests. contrasted neo-classical stockholders who were only interested in financial performance (Grouf, 1994 Shapiro, 1992), the major stakeholders of today, that is, the stockholders are more interested in the firms current and future financial benefits and social performance.2.3 observational ReviewThis section reviews the works done and methods used by researchers on the relationship of CFP and CSP. Empirical results on the correlation between these are coalesce whereby s ome yielded in positive, some in negative or some in non-significant relationships. Basing on the stakeholder theory approach, several models on the CFP-CSP relationship have been proposed, where the largest number of investigations found a positive CSP-CFP relationship. Notably, different methods to compute indexes for CFP and CSP have been used since data on both cannot be possibly obtained in absolute figures.As such, using aggregated weights assigned to K dimensions of social performance obtained through questionnaire for CSP and using change in Return of Equity, change in Return on sales and growth in sales as financial measures on a exemplar of 496 firms, Bernadette M. Ruf et al. (2001) came up with a positive relationship between CSP and CFP. They, in fact, regressed change in CSP on change in CFP. The results revealed a significant positive relationship between change in CSP and change in Return on Equity and change in Return on Sales in the long term but that with the Gro wth of Sales to be significantly positive only in year 0 and 1. The study suggests that improvements in CSP have both immediate and continuing financial impacts.A paper by S. A. Waddock and S. B. Graves (1997) also came up with positive linkage between CFP and CSP. An index for CSP was computed using eight attributes, rated consistently across the entire Standards Poors 500 by a rating service, which were related to stakeholder concerns. The firm financial performance (profitability) was measured using three accounting variables, namely, return on assets (ROA), return on equity (ROE) and return on sales (ROS) used to assess CFP by the investment community. Factors such as size, risk and industry which affect both CFP and CSP were taken as control variables. utilize on a sample of 469 companies and using CSP as both dependent and independent variable, the results revealed that CFP does depend on CSP and vice-versa and also indicated the importance of controlling for industry in ass essing such a relationship.To bring more integrity, M. Orlitzky et al. (2003) conducted a quantitative meta-analysis on the CFP-CSP relationship building on the hypothesis that CSP and CFP are generally positively related leading to competencies, learning, efficiency and reputation-building with its external stakeholders. Taking CFP as a companys financial viability through three broad subdivisions consisting of market-based (investor returns), accounting-based (accounting returns), and perceptual (survey) measures and constructing CSP through four broad beat strategies, namely (a) CSP disclosures (annual reports, letters to shareholders) (b) CSP reputation ratings (c) social audits, CSP processes, and observable outcomes and (d) managerial CSP principles and values (Post, 1991), the study suggests that corporate virtue in the form of social responsibility and, to a lesser extent, environmental responsibility can pay off, despite the CSP-CFP operationalisations can also moderate th e positive association. CSP appeared to be more highly correlated with accounting-based measures of CFP than with market-based indicators, and CSP reputation indices were more highly correlated with CFP than are other indicators of CSP. This meta-analysis establishes a greater degree of certainty with respect to the CSP-CFP relationship than is currently assumed to exist by many business scholars.According to Mahoney L. and Roberts R.W. (2007), there is no significant relationship between a composite measure of firms CSP and CFP. Using four years embellish data of Canadian firms, they calculated a composite measure of CSP score by summing all dimension strength ratings, such as, community relations, diversity, employee relations, environment, international, product safety, and amongst others and subtracting all dimension weaknesses ratings. As concerned the CFP, following Waddock and Graves (1997a), return on assets (ROA) and return on equity (ROE) were used separately to measure a firms CFP. As CFP was expected to be positively related to CSP, a one-year lag between CFP and all independent variables (CSP, firm size, debt level, and industry) was used. Inconsistent with their expectation, they found no significant relationship between the composite CSP measure and either ROA or ROE. However, the use of individual measures of firms CSP regarding environmental and international activities and CFP resulted in a significant relationship providing mixed support for the business case for CSP. A study, using the Granger causality approach, by Rim Makni et al. (2008) reaffirms Mahoney and Roberts (2007) works on the non-significant relationship.However, there may also be a simultaneous and interactive negative relation between CSP and CFP, forming a vicious circle.Building on P. L. Cochran and R. A. Wood (1984) CSR-financial performance model where average age of corporate assets was found to be highly correlated with social responsibility rankings, D. J. Wood (1991) reformulated the CSP model to build a coherent, integrative framework for business and society research. The principles of social responsibility were framed at the institutional, organisational, and individual levels processes of social responsiveness were shown to be environmental assessment, stakeholder management, and issues management and outcomes of CSP were posed as social impacts, programs, and policies. The third part of the CSP model concerning the social outcomes was the only portion that was actually observable and open to assessment and any real performance, determined by stakeholders, existed. It was noted that stakeholders were likely to evaluate CSP differently, depending not only on their own interests, but also on their understanding and acceptance of social responsibility principles and their relationship to CSP. Building on this model, many researchers worked on finding the linkage between CFP and CSP. Using Wood (1991)s model, the results of a study conducted by P. A. and S.D. Stanwick (1998) showed that a firms CFP is indeed affetced by the size of the firm, and the amount of contaminant emissions released.Where many numerous quantitative studies have been carried out to establish, largely in samples of multiple industries, the CSP-CFP relationship, M. Soana (2009) investigated this very linkage in the banking sector using a sample of national and international banks where social performance was proxied using content analysis, surveys, reputational measures, unidimensional indicators, ethical ratings and financial economic performance was proxied using market and accounting ratios. The eventual(prenominal) examination resulted in a no statistically significant link that could indicate any positive or negative correlation between CSP and CFP. The reason was that the majority of studies revised till now are also almost exclusively focused on the USA and UK markets. Corporate governance was also used as control variable, but it showed a non -significant and negative link with ROA and ROA. The study also confirmed the hypothesis that those banks that have the most transparent and efficient self-control structure are also the least profitable for shareholders.

Alien and Sedition Act :: essays research papers

You are back in the year 1798, the government has just passed a law facial expression what ever they do and create it will be the standard. You have no say or any comment on it, because frankly they just take overt care. You are now placed back in the year 2001, would it be possible to apply a law of such magnitude to our ball club today? I dont think so. Our country is based upon individual rights, we are allowed to say what we feel, and do what we want. It is what has shaped our country into what it is today. The saying coat makes things perfect is one such example. It is a pliable material and can be formed or molded into whatever shapes you need it be. Just as our dry land is today, it is pliable to our societys needs. The Alien and Sedition Act demolished this moral standard by passing 4 acts that deny the billet of people. The United States at this time was faced with such economic and political problems domestically. Such economic problems as a trade barrier created suc h turmoil. In the text it is described that Spain, England and France on conditions of trade by saying that Immediately following the war, Britain, France, and Spain are all restricted from American trade with the colonial states. Our nation was also faced with one such problem as debt. The wars and battles our great nation has gone through in the past has created such a debt at this point in time that is almost not comprehendible for any normal human. In order to regain a financial balance the federalist came up with 3 solutions. They created an executive cabinet made up of heads of departments and they created a Judiciary Act of 1789. The Judiciary Act allowed for laws to be declared unconstitutional and put personnel back at a National level instead of state.Hamilton came up with 3 reports to also help out with the debt our nation was facing. His first report was upon pubic Credit, it stated that the nation would consolidate the debt at a national and state level, paying off the debt in face value, and would shift the power to the National Government. In Hamiltons second report, he continued to set apart and distinguish between lower class and the aristocracy of the nation. Hamilton accomplished his separation by instating the first of all Bank of the United States.

Sports :: essays research papers

25 million American sisterren can not be wrong. Even though at least 20 million of thesekids will suffer injury by the age of 15, only 10% of the injuries are serious enough to requiremore than one land to the doctor. I have been playing baseball as well as other organized sportsfor almost 15 years and in my opinion, sports develop friendship and self-esteem. I believe thatcoaches should take a "how-to" class on what a coach should and should not do.     Injuries occur for three main reasons. First, because parents push their children past their indispensable ability level, thus it causes injury to the over worked body parts. Second, an accidentoccurs such as a turned ankle or a ball taking a bad bounce and hitting a player. The third, andmost common reason, a coach takees a player the wrong way to perform detail task. Forexample, when I was 12 years old, my baseball coach taught me the wrong way to throw a curveball. After repeatedly throwing the w rong way, I toroid a ligament in my right elbow. If my coachat that time, would have taken some kind of class, he would have known the proper way to teachthe technique.     Nevertheless, I feel that sports should greatly benefit a childs self-esteem. Competitionalso builds self-esteem because children grow both emotionally and physically and sports help todevelop a positive view of both themselves and their athletic skills. As long as children feel thatthey are beneficial to the team, they are developing self-esteem because they see their own(prenominal)role in the team as important to the whole cause. If a child is not athletically gifted, he canalways take up a more non-competitive sport such as jogging or weight-training. This will alsobuild self-esteem because the child can see his improvement and plug into to others at the sametime (Michelli and Jenkins).     As well as building self-esteem, sports can help develop life-long friendship s. Childrenform all different ethnic and apparitional backgrounds come together to play a game. This makes agood place for children to mingle with others of the same age. This can in turn give each child asense of belonging and camaraderie between different races. Athletics also allow children to hire about their abilities as compared to other children of the same age. Children learn abouttalent that otherwise may have gone unnoticed. If I had not been involved in sports from anearly age, I may have never discovered the talent that I have in baseball.

Lincolns Beliefs Against Racism and Slavery :: American History Abraham Lincoln

*What were Lincolns beliefs concerning race and slavery? How did they change over time, and in what ways did they remain the same? How were they evident in the Lincoln-Douglass Debates, and the history of freedom?On October 16, 1854, Abraham Lincoln gave a speech denouncing the Kansas-Nebraska Act at Peoria, Illinois. He stated that it was too modified and it was a repeal to the Missouri agree. The Missouri Compromise prohibited slavery in the remainder of the Louisiana Purchase north of 3630N lat. The Kansas-Nebraska Act gave the territories popular sovereignty which was the direct opposite of the previous decision. This declare indifference, but as I must think, covert real zeal for the spread of slavery, I evict not but hate. I hate it because of the horrible injustice of slavery itself (Johnson 45).In a fragment that Abraham Lincoln wrote in 1854 about slavery, he protested that both blacks and whites had the same right to enslave each former(a) and neither had more superiority. He used a theory to prove all of the whites reasons for slavery were incorrect and could be turned around to enslave them. You enunciate A. is white, and B is black. It is color, then the lighter, having the right to enslave the darker? Take care. By this rule, you are to be slave to the first man you meet, with a fairer skin than your own. He in addition went on to use the same reasoning towards disproving the arguments that whites are intellectually superior to blacks (Johnson 49).On June 26, 1857 Lincoln gave a speech on the Dred Scott case. He expressed his disapproval of their decision but maintained that he offered no resistance to it. The point that the court had over-ruled its own decisions before was brought up and he said, We shall try to do what we can to have to over-rule this (Johnson 56). Lincoln realized the necessity to respect and abide by the law, but he also recognized the ability, through legislative power, to change the law.In the Lincoln- Douglass Debates, Lincoln stated that he had no lawful right to interfere with the institution of slavery. Lincoln also goes on further to say that he doesnt imagine in full political or social equality for blacks, but he says that whites and blacks share the inalienable rights that are listed in the Declaration of Independence.

Trip Report :: essays research papers

Trip ReportSummaryThis assignment was designed to create the views of athletes toward how the athletic budget is spent and what type of activities that they do. In this case the intended audience was current athletes at Washington State University. Athletes competing in different sports were great dealed. This survey was conducted February 17-20. My target audience was the actual audience that I surveyed. The majority of my surveying was conducted outside of the varsity weightroom. AssesmentI felt that I got reliable info on the majority of the questions. My goal, as stated above, was to get the view of athletes on what they thought of their budget, and how they spend their free time. I believe that the questions represented what it was I was trying to get. The training that I received will be helpful to my group in that we can assess the athletic budget to see if there is excess disbursement that can be used by the students.The questions can be delegated to three different gro ups, as followsBudget and Spending1. I am aware of how knowledge is dispersed throughout the University. &61623 Twenty-five of the xxx people surveyed (83%) said no, that they do not know how it is dispersed.2. Yes or no my tuition is paid by an athletic scholarship.&61623 Twenty-two of the thirty surveyed (73%) said yes, their tuition is paid for.3. True or False, I spend all of the meal money allotted to me on the trips.&61623 seventeen of the thirty surveyed (57%) said true, they spend all of the meal money.4. How would you rate the hotels that you stay in during your trips, one being excellent and four being poor.&61623 Sixteen of the thirty surveyed (53%) circled four, saying that the hotels are excellent, four of the thirty (13%) said that the hotels were poor.Facilities and Equipment1. On a scale of one to five with one being that highest, how would you rate the varsity lyceum?&61623 Twenty-three of the thirty surveyed (77%) gave the varsity gym the highest rating not one person gave the gym a rating of four or five.2. How often must(prenominal) you wait around to use the equipment in the varsity gym?&61623 Twenty-three of the thirty people surveyed (77%) selected never while only seven said that they sometimes had to wait.3. How would you rate the student gym?&61623 Fifteen of the thirty (50%) gave the student gym the highest rating, while five of the thirty (17%) gave it a poor rating.