Freud Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Freud - Assignment Example Even though numerous therapists appear to have turned down some of Freud's speculations, without him the universe of brain science would not have been the same (Freud, p.10) Discussion Freud's work with the cognizant and unconscious brain is recognized to be one of his most extremely popular hypotheses. In his speculation, the psyche essentially comprises of two parts, the cognizant and the unconscious. The cognizant part of an individual's personality essentially comprises of things that the individual is familiar with. This incorporates the memory, or "preconscious", in light of the fact that it is information that could be effectively recovered by an individual. The unconscious personality comprises of things outside of one's awareness, for example emotions, urges, remembrances, or musings. The point when an individual thinks about the unconscious personality he or she will for the most part think about a Freudian slip. Tragically, this is an encounter that very nearly everybody h as encountered. A Freudian slip is an occasion that happens when somebody uncovers something that is not an unconscious contemplation or feeling (Kihlstorm, p.445). For the most part, this occasion will happen when an individual is tongue-lashing another individual, and something slip's out which was unintended. This, more or less, happens in light of the fact that an individual has a certain urge of amusing or feeling in the unconscious personality. In addition, with respect to Freud's speculation on the cognizant and unconscious mind, his examination regarding the individual’s nature works is extraordinary. Freud saw a unique controlling feature in the human beings, consisting of three levels, namely, the id, self-image and the superego. The id held primitive drives that followed the premise of delight. Its prevailing objective was to look for instantaneous delight and keep away from torment. The self-image of cognizant was actuality, hence, it worked by means of the actual ity guideline, distinguishing between recognition, judgment and memory. The superego looked for culmination; it held qualities and social ethics held inside the still, small voice (Freud, p.2). Notwithstanding, his dedication to an experimental planet view, Freud's plans were less objective and investigative as he jumped at the chance to suppose. His speculation was built more with respect to clinical impressions than on regulated exact techniques. The aggregation of information and presentation of conclusions is unsystematic, the terms and thoughts are frequently impalpable and troublesome to test and measure, hence, the investigative status of analysis is disputable at a few focuses. Furthermore, the greater part of his speculation is inferred from perceptions of psychotic individuals, hence, the substance of his decisions concerned human conduct. Notwithstanding its unverified suspicions, Freud's speculation has animated further deliberate research on the nature of identity; cons cience systematic analysts as well as object-relations theorists owe much to his work (Bargh and Ezequiel, p.74). Impact and Conclusion The after impact of Freud’s theories on the world of psychology is tremendous and long lasting, due to which, the majority of the psychologists have conducted studies under the guidance of Freud. They have been greatly influenced by

Daoism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 2

Daoism - Essay Example e parts of the Yin-Yang symbol manifest diametrically opposite principles, which have permeated into every phenomena in people’s existence, that is, life and death, male and female, hot and cold, reflections and absence of thought, action and inaction. According to the principle of Yin and Yang all things are characterized by the presence of both male and female parts, being a manifestation of dark and light. Consequently, the basic concept of Daoism is a balanced approach to all phenomena of nature and their adjustment in the context of an inequilibrium. Another important composite part of Daoism philosophy can be found in the Daodejing (Tao Te Ching), which is attributed to Laozi, the founder of Daoism. As a matter of fact, it appears that the author is unknown, as Laozi is not his truly name and only a nickname in the meaning of a wise elder. The title of the scripture in its turn may be translated as the book of the path and virtue. According to the legend, in the decline of years Laozi has decided to leave China and went to the West. Passing through a frontier post, Laozi has been asked by its chief to leave a book in memory of him, which would reflect the wise old man’s thoughts about the path of peace and human’s way in it (Orbinski-Vonk, 2012). This is the very way of the Daodejing appearance. Its importance is great for Chinese history and culture, since it is a document of Ancient China’s thought. Moreover, it is considered to be one of the classical works of Daoism. The views set forth in it have made a massive impact on subsequent development of China’s philosophy. Daoism being a part of traditional cultural heritage serves as a complex component of spiritual culture of modern China. Reflecting the ethnic and cultural peculiarities, it becomes a powerful direct and indirect impact factor. Specifically, Daoist ideals find their expression through art acting as means of expression of thoughts and feelings of people seeking penetration into

A New Ending to the Lord of the Flies Essay Example for Free

A New Ending to the Lord of the Flies Essay Instead of coming at me, like I thought he would he ran the opposite direction and started screaming at the top of his lungs. By now the fire was out of control; it was racing down the mountain side, faster than fast. I started to run again, this time I was running toward the beach. â€Å"I need to get the littluns to safety† I said to myself. I ran and ran to the beach and went to grab the conch were it should have been; but I stopped myself. The conch is gone just like Piggy. Shattered, into a million pieces. I fell to the ground with exhaustion and grief. I could feel the heat of the fire coming nearer and nearer. As Jacks hunters came closer to me I heard them chanting a different chant. I could have sworn that I hear Jack screaming in pain. Someone burst out of the trees, screaming in pain. â€Å"Jack,† I said to myself as I looked to see if I was right. Sure enough I was right, but this was worse than I imagined, he was on fire! Half of his body was burnt. He looked at me with a sad, hurt look. He ran past me and jumped into the ocean. Jack never resurfaced, and I wasn’t about to go and get him. I heard more screaming behind me. I knew they were coming after me so I ducked down and tried to not move. Maybe they won’t notice me. It must have been ten minutes before I heard any noise coming out of the forest. But as everyone gathered around me it became silent. â€Å"Is everything all right? † I heard a somewhat familiar voice say. I looked up to see who was talking. I started to talk, but as I saw who it was my mouth just stayed open. â€Å"Dad? † I said in unbelief. â€Å"I knew it. † I yelled as I got up and ran to him. He stared as if I was dead. Maybe I am dead and this is all a dream. As I jumped in to his arms I was assured that I was alive when he caught me. He whispered in my ear. â€Å"Ralph? Is that you? † â€Å"YES! † I yelled â€Å"it is me! † I said more quietly. I started to cry out of relief. Dad started to cry too. â€Å"I thought you were dead! † he said barely above a whisper. â€Å"Well, how many of you are there? † he asked getting up and putting me down. â€Å"Um, I really don’t know. There are a few kids dead. † I said the last part a little quieter. â€Å"Well than, who is the leader. Roger was standing next to me. When dad said this, I half expected him to claim the glory, and I was going to let him. Instead he backed up, as did all the other kids. Roger spoke up, â€Å"Ralph is the leader. † He said this with a sound of remorse. â€Å"Ralph? How could you let this happen? † dad sounded surprised that I could let everything get so out of hand . â€Å"I tried to keep everything under control, but when jack got mad and left, everything went out of hand. You can’t honestly think that I could keep control over twenty some boys. I said this and started to cry. â€Å"Well then I guess we should get you boy’s home. † My dad said with a look of guilt on his face. I don’t blame him, though. On the ride home I couldn’t help but ask how mom is. She is fine apparently. I can’t wait to see her. Dad said she couldn’t get over the fact that I was gone. When we made sure that every one was home and good, we made our way home. As we arrived to the house I was reminded of the day I left here some time ago. As I burst through the door to start my life over.

Artificial Birth Control Essay Example for Free

Artificial Birth Control Essay Artificial birth control methods have been used for thousands of years. The hieroglyphics of ancient Egyptians show a figure of an Egyptian male wearing a device around the penis to help prevent pregnancy during intercourse. And there are other cultures which use condoms made of linen or animal intestines. Until now, historians and researchers are still debating on whether the condoms are for ritual purposes or not. Artificial Birth Control is most commonly heard in relation to religious teachings on family planning. Many sectors especially religion encourage the use of natural family planning as opposed to artificial birth control because they believe that using artificial contraception is opposite to Gods will. But there are also non-religious people who preferred not to use artificial birth control for personal, ethical or medical reasons. Artificial birth control can be defined as any product, procedure or practice that uses artificial or unnatural means to prevent pregnancy. Barrier methods such as condoms, Intra uterine Devices (copper), diaphragms, cervical cap, and sponge, hormonal methods such as the pill, IUDs (hormonal), and emergency contraception. There are also injections, spermicides, and surgical sterilization procedures such as tubal ligation and vasectomy which are all considered to be artificial birth control methods. This paper includes the different types and examples of artificial birth control and their advantages and disadvantages. Condoms A condom is a device made of fine rubber (latex). It avoids unwanted pregnancies and sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), including AIDS and HIV. The use of condoms is one of the easiest, most reliable and effective methods. But one should take few precautionary measures before using it; they must ensure that it is not torn or ruptured and that they are using it before the expiry date. For a male condom, the man covers his penis with a condom during sexual intercourse in order to prevent the sperm from entering the vagina. A female condom is also made if fine rubber (latex) that when used it must be entirely aligned to vagina. The two types of female condom are the FC or FC2 female condom and the VA w.o.w. Condom Feminine. The FC female condom is a 17 cm (6.5 inches) in length. There is a flexible ring at each end. At the closed end of the sheath, the flexible ring is inserted into the vagina to anchor the condom in place. While at the open end, the ring stays outside the vulva at the entrance to the vagina. The VA w.o.w. Condom Feminine when not stretched is around 9 cm (3.5 inches) – though it is very elastic. It has a rounded triangular frame at the open end and a sponge inside the closed end, which helps to hold the condom inside the vagina. Condoms are easily obtained, cheap, very effective, it protects against sexually transmitted disease, and it possibly reduces risk of cervical cancer. But it interrupts the foreplay, it reduces sensitivity for both or either partner, it requires great care, and it sometimes causes allergy. Intra uterine Devices (IUD) – Copper IUD is a birth control device made of soft plastic and has the shape of the English letter T and is placed in the uterus. It is a long-term method that prevents pregnancy for 3-5 years. Copper is wound on the lower part and on the tip of the T are the two threads. With the help of the threads, women can check if it is inserted properly. Copper T does not create any problems during copulation and it can be used immediately after childbirth. But unlike condoms, it does not protect the user from AIDS and other sexually transmitted diseases. Diaphragm Diaphragm is a thin rubber dome with an elastic and flexible rim. It is inserted into the vagina and fits over the cervix that is hold in place by vaginal muscles. The diaphragm holds spermicide in place over the cervix; spermicide kills sperm and prevents fertilization. Diaphragms are 86-94% effective as birth control. It is cheap, the female partner is the one that takes the responsibility, there is no interruption during intercourse, there is no loss of sensation for either partner, it reduces of bacteria related STDs, couples may feel less inhibited when the woman is menstruating, and pre – malignancy and cervical malignancy are reduced. But it is uncomfortable to insert and remove from vagina, it requires a doctor to fit and check it, it requires preparation, some male partners are aware of the cap and may not like it, there is no protection against viral conditions such as herpes simplex or HIV, it sometimes cause allergy, and it cannot be fitted before first intercourse, if there is a vaginal septum or utero-vaginal prolapsed. Cervical Cap Cervical cap is a device inserted into the vagina that fits over the cervix to blocked the sperm from entering the uterus and prevents fertilization. After intercourse, it should be left in place for 8 hours. Cervical covers are 84-91% effective at preventing pregnancy for women who have never given birth and 68-74% effective for women who have given birth. Cervical cap can be inserted many hours before sexual intercourse, it is easy to carry around, it is comfortable to use, it does not alter menstrual cycle and affect future fertility, and it may help the user to better know her body. But cervical cap does not protect against HIV or AIDS, it requires a fitting in a clinic, it is difficult to insert or remove, it can be dislodged during sexual intercourse, and there can be possible allergic reactions. Birth Control Sponge The birth control sponge is made of plastic foam that contains spermicide. It is soft, round, and about two (2) inches in diameter. It has a nylon loop attached to the bottom for removal and it is inserted deep into the vagina before sexual intercourse. The sponge avoids pregnancy by keeping sperm from joining with an egg. The sponge may cover the cervix and blocks the sperm from entering the uterus or it can continuously release a spermicide that keeps the sperm from moving. The birth control sponge can be carried in pocket or purse, it can’t be felt by either partner, it has no effect on a womans natural hormones, it does not interrupt sex play, and it can be used during breastfeeding. But it may be difficult for some women to insert or remove the sponge, it may cause vaginal irritation, and it may make sex too messy or too dry because sponge requires too much liquid. Contraceptive Pills Most hormonal birth control methods contain the hormones estrogen and progestin, although some contain progestin only. Hormonal contraceptive pills work by preventing females from ovulating or releasing eggs from their ovaries each month, and by thinning the lining of the uterus to keep a pregnancy from implanting. Without an egg to be fertilized by sperm, pregnancy cannot occur. Contraceptive pill is a very effective birth control but there are also side effects like significant mood swings and decreased libido. Intra uterine Devices (IUD) – Hormonal Hormonal uterine devices sometimes called Intra Uterine Systems were first introduced in 1990. It releases levonorgestrel, a progestogen, and may be used for five years. Hormonal Intra Uterine Devices do not increase bleeding as inert and copper-containing IUDs do. Rather, they reduce menstrual bleeding or prevent menstruation altogether, and can be used as a treatment for menorrhagia (heavy periods). The use of Intra Uterine Systems results in much lower systemic progestogen levels than other very-low-dose progestogen-only hormonal contraceptives; they might possibly have some of the same side effects like loss of libido, possible cervical cancer, vaginal infection, anxiety and nervousness, and pain in lower abdominals. Emergency Contraception The emergency contraception is also known as the morning-after pill. It is a safe and effective way to prevent pregnancy after unprotected intercourse. It can be started up to five days or 120 hours after unprotected intercourse. The hormone in the morning-after pill prevents pregnancy by thickening a womans cervical mucus and by thinning the lining of the uterus. The mucus blocks sperm and keeps it from joining with an egg which could prevent pregnancy by keeping a fertilized egg from attaching to the uterus. Injections Injections are 99% effective that is scheduled every 3 months. Depo-Provera ®, one of the two types that are now available, contains progesterone that is similar to what the body produces. It prevents release of the egg from the ovary and causes changes in cervical mucus and the lining of the uterus. The second one is the Lunelle ® which contains two hormones like the pill, so it has the same side effects as the pill. Spermicides Spermicides can come in different form like cream, gel, foam, film, and suppositories. Most spermicides contain nonoxynol-9 which is a chemical that kills sperm. Spermicides immobilize and kill the sperm before they are able to swim into the uterus. To be effective, the spermicide must be placed deep in the vagina, close to the cervix. Creams, gels, and foams are squirted into the vagina using an applicator. But spermicides are more effective when used with another method of birth control, such as a condom or diaphragm. Spermicides are only effective for an hour, not all women can use it and some have an allergic reaction to the substances. Sterilization Sterilization is a form of birth control and all the procedures are meant to be permanent. For females (Tubal Ligation), a minor operation that blocks a womans fallopian tubes, the tubes that carry the egg to the uterus; female sterilization works by blocking the egg from reaching sperm. For males (Vasectomy), requires minor surgery on the scrotum to cut the vasa deferentia, the tubes that carry sperm. This operation keeps sperm from mixing into the semen when men ejaculate. Without sperm, fertilization of an egg cannot occur and pregnancy is prevented. Sterilization provides permanent birth control, allows sexual spontaneity, requires no daily attention, does not affect pleasure, and it is also not messy. But it does not protect against sexually transmitted infections, including HIV/AIDS, it is not immediately effective, it requires minor surgery in a clinic and a possible regret if the couple wish to have one or more child. References: http://www.avert.org/female-condom.htm http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intrauterine_device http://www.tarahaat.com/health_ABC.aspx http://www.livestrong.com/article/201512-types-of-artificial-methods-for-family-planning/ http://www.modernmom.com/article/what-is-the-meaning-of-artificial-birth-control http://www.ehow.com/facts_5004780_what-meaning-artificial-birth-control.html http://www.fwhc.org/birth-control/diaphram.htm

Implementation of international human rights treaties

Implementation of international human rights treaties I. INTRODUCTION Historically human rights have been seen to hold essentially against the State and society of which one is a member.[1] The implementation and compliance with international human rights treaties and obligations are eventually national issues, and it is the States that are under an obligation under the international human rights treaties to safeguard, uphold, protect, and promote the human rights of individuals within their respective territories. National and domestic mechanisms to protect the human rights of the citizens can take various forms. They primarily consist of the courts, ombudsmen, and the National Human Rights Institutions[2]. The concept of National Human Rights Institutions is a recent development among the mechanisms for the promotion and protection of human rights[3]. A National Human Rights Institution(hereinafter NHRIs) has been described as â€Å"a body, which is established by a government under the Constitution, or by law or decree, the functions of, which are specially defined in terms of the promotion, and protection of human rights.†[4] Though these institutions are especially intended to protect and promote human rights, they do not take over the role of the courts and the judiciary, legislative bodies, government agencies, political parties or NGOs[5]. They mainly monitor the human rights situation, audit laws, make recommendations, train personnel, educate the public, report to international bodies, hold inquiries. NHRIs can be of various forms, namely Ombudsmen, Hybrid Human Rights Ombudsmen, or Human Rights Commissions.[6] Since the effective protection of human rights necessitates flexible mechanisms that cannot ordinarily be provided within the traditional court system, national human rights institutions, â€Å"with their â€Å"complimentary mechanisms,† have become the much needed â€Å"third force† for the protection and promotion of human rights at the national level.†[7] Further since not all human rights violations are of such degree so as to attract international attention the NHRIs could perform these functions at the national level.[8] In India, the institutional framework for protection of human rights was enhanced when the Parliament enacted the Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993. It was under the mandate of this Act, that the National Human Rights Commission (hereinafter NHRC) was set up in India on 12 October 1993[9]. This Commission is among one of the first NHRIs established in the South Asian countries and also few among the NHRIs, which were established in the early 1990s.[10] This paper is an attempt to evaluate and assess the role of the NHRCs in protecting and promoting human rights of citizens. The paper begins with a brief history of the events which led to the formation of the National Human Rights Commission. The Paris Principles will be discussed and highlighted in this regard. The second part of the paper will deal with workings of NHRC and how in the recent years, the NHRC has gradually extended its jurisdiction, and have dealt with a wide variety of cases ranging from suggestions for police reforms to rights of disabled, health, rights of mentally challenged, food security, education, rights of minorities, Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes and internally displaced persons, etc.[11] The next part of the paper will deal with two specific issues the disappearance cases in Punjab and the right to food issue in Kalahandi, which has been successfully tackled by the NHRC. Finally the researcher will probe into the question as to how to further str engthen and increase the effectiveness of the NHRC. II. RESEACRH QUESTIONS What were the background events which led to the creation of the NHRC in India? How the has the jurisdiction of NHRC been expanded over the recent years? How has the NHRC dealt with the cases of ‘disappearance in Punjab and the ‘Right to Food case in Kalahandi? III. CREATION OF THE NATIONAL HUMAN HIGHTS COMMISSION IN INDIA For several years, the United Nations (hereinafter UN) has been vigorously trying to promote independent and effective human rights institutions, after recognizing that this may be the best way to ensure respect for human rights within the domestic sphere.[12] In the 1990s the UN strongly advocated the establishment of NHRIs, and encouraged the strengthening of the existing NHRIs. In 1991, the first major international meeting on this issue, took place in the Workshop on National Human Rights Institutions held in Paris[13], where the Principles relating to the Status of National Institutions (or the Paris Principles)[14] were adopted. The Paris Principles, subsequently endorsed by the UN Commission on Human Rights[15] and the UN General Assembly,[16] sets out the minimum criteria for the effective functioning of the NHRIs.[17] It calls for the establishment of independent commissions to protect human rights, and it has become the benchmark against which national human rights institut ions are measured. [18] The Paris Principles prescribe seven important principles which aim at creating independent and credible NHRIs. According to the Paris Principles, a NHRI must be: independent of the Government, with such independence guaranteed either by statutory law or constitutional provisions; be pluralistic in their roles and membership; have a broad mandate, which could collectively protect and monitor the implementation of human rights through various means, including recommendations and proposals concerning existing and proposed laws and policies; have adequate powers of investigation, capacity to hear complaints and transmit them to the competent authorities; be characterized by regular and effective functioning; be adequately funded and not subject to financial control, which might affect their independence; and be easily accessible to the general public.[19] Discussions surrounding the establishment of a NHRI in India dates back to 1991 India. Throughout the late 1980s India faced politically turbulent times, for the nation, especially Kashmir, Punjab and Assam was engulfed in a powerful wave of foreign-funded terrorist violence, which resulted in a severe loss of human life and property.[20] In order to combat these insurgency and secessionist movements which were gaining ground, the Indian Government deployed the army, the paramilitary, and the Border Security Forces, and enacted the draconian Terrorist and Disruptive Activities (Prevention) Act, 1987, that vested vast powers in the police.[21] The giving of sweeping powers to the police resulted in the rise of state-sponsored terrorism. The police flagrantly caused grave violations of human rights, indiscriminately, victimizing innocent persons.[22] This resulted in international outcry and ‘scathing reports were submitted by the Amnesty International and Asia Watch manifesting that abuses including torture, rape, custodial deaths, and disappearances committed by state security agents were actual and endemic[23]. The Government of India was heavily criticized for failing to punish the guilty and establishing a credible mechanism to monitor the situation and punish the guilty. [24] BILL CLINTON Apprehending indictment from the international community and a resultant fall-out with international financial institutions such as the World Bank, the Congress government, led by Mr. P.V. Narasimha Rao, and initiated discussions on establishing a National Human Rights Commission[25]. On 16 March 1992, the then Home Minister, Mr. S. B. Chaban stated that the goal of the proposed human rights commission was to â€Å"counter the false and politically motivated propaganda by foreign and Indian civil rights agencies†[26]. Further, Mr. V.N. Gadgil, the then official spokesperson of Congress (I) added, that the findings of the NHRC â€Å"will act as correctives to the biased and one-sided reports of the NGOs. It will also be an effective answer to politically motivated international criticism.†[27] Hence it is evident that prior to the formation of the NHRC the government had sought to utilize it to deter the criticisms by international community, instead of trying to create a mechanism for better protection of human rights. Many commentators labeled this initiative as an endeavor to counter the criticisms over Indias refusal to give access to international human rights groups for conducting research missions in various parts of India.[28]. It is in the midst of these criticisms that the President of India promulgated an Ordinance on September 28, 1993 providing for the creation of a National Human Rights Commission, human rights commissions in Indian states, and human rights courts. The NHRC came into effect on 12 October 1993 by virtue of the Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993. [29] IV. EXPANSION OF THE JURISDICTION OF THE NATIONAL COMMISSION ON HUMAN RIGHTS The National Human Rights Commission of India was constituted â€Å"for the better promotion of human rights and for matters connected therewith or thereto.†[30] It is a statutory body, having an independent and autonomous character, and is vested with powers, duties, and functions. Indeed over the past 17 years the Commission has endeavored to give a positive meaning and a content to the objectives set out in the Protection of Human Rights Act. It has moved vigorously and effectively to use the opportunities provided to it by the Act to promote and protect human rights in the country.[31] The Protection of Human Rights Act is divided into 8 chapters consisting of 43 Sections. Special powers are conferred to the NHRC under Section 10(2), according to which the Commission shall regulate its own procedure.[32]According to Section 3 the Commission shall consist of five members, three of whom should be from the judiciary and two from amongst persons having knowledge of, or practical experience in, matters concerning human rights. Selection of chairperson and members of the Commission is made on the recommendations of a committee consisting of the Prime Minister, Home Minister, Speaker and leader of the opposition in the House of the People and Deputy Chairman and leader of opposition in the Council of States. The Commission has various powers like inquiring suo motu against any public servant[33], intervening in any court proceedings involving allegations of a human rights violation provided the court approves of the intervention[34], monitoring prison or custodial practice and visiting any jail or any other similar institution[35] and making recommendations to State governments based on such visits. The Commission has the power to review the safeguards provided under the Constitution or any law relating to the protection of human rights[36], and review cases pertaining to terrorism, as well as to recommend appropriate remedial measures[37]. Section 12(f) empowers the commission to make recommendations for their effective implementation of international human rights treaties. While Section 12(g) provides for the promotion of research in the human rights field, Section 12(h) empowers the Commission to spread human rights literacy amongst various sections of the society, and to promote awar eness through publications, the media, seminars and other available means; It can also encourage efforts of NGOs working in the field of human rights[38], and can perform any other functions which are deemed necessary for the promotion of human rights. The role of the Commission is complementary to that of judiciary. On various occasions the Supreme Court has referred important matters to the Commission, while on the other hand the Commission has also taken specific cases of violation of human rights to the Courts. This complementary role of the National Human Rights Commission and the judiciary in India is an illustration of ‘best practice†.[39] Section 2 (d) of the Act defines â€Å"human rights† as â€Å"rights relating to life, equality, and dignity of the individual guaranteed by the Constitution or embodied in the International Covenants and enforceable by courts in India†. Thus it is evident that the law requires the NHRC to give more importance to civil and political than on social and economic rights.[40] However, the Commission has not limited its jurisdiction to only civil and political rights, but has expanded its jurisdiction and has dealt with wide variety of cases. Initially the efficacy of NHRC and the force of its recommendations within the limitations of its jurisdiction were doubted. It was thought that the Commission could make recommendations only with respect to matters within its jurisdictions. However, after 17 years of the functioning of NHRC belied these apprehensions[41]. The Commission has acquired high visibility and it has been identified as the major institution preserving the huma n rights culture in the country. It has constantly sought to interpret its powers and functions under the Act as expansively as possible keeping in mind its over-arching responsibility to protect the human rights of the people.[42] Since its inception, the Commission had started receiving numerous complaints with respect to violation of human rights by the police. The commission has intervened in cases on police reforms pending before the Supreme Court. It has dealt with cases regarding police administration and has set up a Police Complaint Authority in the office of the Director General of Police in each state in order to have a general oversight of the conduct of the police officials.[43] It has also given serious attention to improving the prevailing conditions in the jails, and about the conditions of the under trials, and mentally ill persons in prisons. With respect to the issue of custodial violence and urged people to report cases of custodial deaths, rapes etc, including those involved in the army and para-military forces should be reported to the Commission immediately.[44] The Commission is of the view that only realizing that political freedom would not be purposeful for the teaming millions of people who suffer from poverty and social evils unless economic, social and cultural rights are assured to them, the Commission, during the past few years has made serious efforts towards realization of economic social and cultural rights.[45] Since 1994, the Commission has been advocating for the right to free and compulsory education to all children until they complete the age of 14 years. The 86th Constitutional Amendment Act, which was passed in 2002, mandates that ‘the State shall provide free and compulsory education to all children of the age of six to fourteen years in such manner as the State may, by law, determine. It has also been actively involved in the drafting of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities and soon after its adoption by the UN General Assembly, the Commission commended it to the Government of India for ratification, which has since been done. According to Article 33 of that Convention the Commission has initiated follow up action, and held regional workshops to spread awareness to various stakeholders about the provisions of the Convention. [46] Further, the Commission has also dealt with the right to Health and the need for Quality assurance in Mental Hospitals and prote ction of the rights of mentally ill. The Commission recommended compulsory rural attachment for the doctors and having nurse practitioners to resolve the issue of manpower.[47] On the direction of the Supreme Court, the Commission has been also supervising the enforcement of administration of laws against bonded laborers in various States. This involvement of the commission at the instance of the Supreme Court is an illustration of strategic alliance between the two institutions in securing human rights of the vulnerable.[48] Further, it has also taken care of the rights of those who are affected adversely by natural calamities. For example in the aftermath of the Orissa Super-cyclone, in 1999, the Commission had suo-motu taken cognizance of the situation, and made recommendations to the State Governments to ensure that the human rights of the marginalized groups -widows, orphans, tribals, destitutes are protected[49]. Commission took suo-motu cognizance of the communal violence which broke out broke out in the State of Gujarat on February 27, 2002 and has been seized of the issue since then. In 2003, the Commission filed a Special Leave Petition in the Sup reme Court to enforce â€Å"the right of fair trial† for all and a petition for transfer of nine serious cases for trial outside the State of Gujarat. [50]The intervention of the Commission has resulted in the transfer of some serious cases to outside Gujarat, reopening and retrial in significant cases and conviction of the guilty persons in ‘Best Bakery and Bilkis Bano cases[51]. Based on the Commissions efforts and advice, India has signed the Torture Convention, and has also signed and ratified two Optional Protocols to the Convention on the Rights of the Child and the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. It has been advocating for the ratification of the 1951 UN Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and the Torture Convention. Further it has also been advocating for a National Law on Refugees.[52] The Commission has also constituted a Working Group and an Advisory Committee including representatives of various departments of the Government, NGOs, and eminent lawyers to prepare a National Action Plan for Human Rights in 2006. The Working Group is focusing on areas like education; criminal justice system including police, prosecution court etc.; rights of vulnerable groups like women, children, bonded labourers, dalits, tribals, minorities, disabled and the elderly. Issues like right to food, water, health and environment, and righ t to social security globalization and human rights are also being dealt with by the Commission.[53] There has hardly been any aspect of economic, social and cultural rights which has not been dealt with by the Commission be it right to food, right to clean drinking water, right to shelter, right to health, right against discrimination, right to clean drinking water, right to shelter, right to against discrimination, right to health, right to a clean environment. Again they have dealt with rights of women, children, bonded labour, displaced persons, denotified and nomadic tribes, members of minorities group and those challenged with disability. V. DISAPPEARANCE CASES IN PUNJAB AND THE RIGHT TO FOOD CASE IN KALAHANDI: Since its inception in 1993, the Commission has dealt with various cases, some of which has been referred to by the Supreme Court, while some others, which the Commission has taken up suo motu. It has acted effectively to use the opportunities provided to it by the Protection of Human Rights Act to promote and protect human rights in the country. Among the important cases which were dealt by the Commission, the disappearance cases in Punjab and the right to food case in Kalahandi, Orissa are discussed below. A. PUNJAB MASS CREMATION AND THE DISAPPEARANCE CASES IN PUNJAB: During the 1980s, Punjab experienced a long insurgency marked by routine battles between insurgents and state forces[54]. From 1984 to 1994, thousands of persons in Punjab â€Å"disappeared† and were believed illegally ‘cremated as part of a brutal police crackdown to suppress insurgency outbreaks in the state.[55] Police counter-insurgency efforts involved cruelty, torture, forced disappearances, and a system of cash rewards for the summary execution of alleged Sikh militants. There were numerous instances of police abuses and there was no absolutely effort to account for these of forced disappearances and summary killings. The disappearance of young men suspected of being either being terrorists, or having links with terrorists, became persistent and incidents like enforced disappearances and mass cremations in Punjab continued to take place, resulting in the death of many innocent and ordinary civilians.[56] It is to be noted that international law requires that State s investigate all cases of forced disappearances in which State liability is at issue, and obliges the state to conduct thorough investigations of all allegations of forced disappearances and to provide a remedy to the victims. Hence, India was obligated under international law to investigate all cases of alleged disappearances across Punjab.[57] In 1994, Jaswant S. Khalra, Chairman of the Human Rights Wing of the Akali Dal, and Jaspal S. Dhillon, then General Secretary of the Wing, responding to the reports of mass disappearances took initiatives to investigate the alleged illegal cremations conducted by the Punjab Police between 1984 and 1994 in three crematoria in Amritsar district.[58] After publicizing their findings, Khalra, filed a writ petition in the Punjab and Haryana High Court by Khalra to investigate these mass cremations. However, since the High Court dismissed his petition on grounds of vagueness, and absence of sufficient proof, Khalra moved to the Supreme Court[59]. Two writ petitions[60] were filed before the Supreme Court, which prayed that the State should be held liable for the flagrant violation of human rights and the mass secret cremations. The Supreme Court after examining a report submitted by the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) pointed out that the report stated that almost 585 dead bodies were fully identified, 274 were partially identified, and 1238 were unidentified.[61] On 12 December 1996 the Court requested the NHRC to examine the matter in accordance with law and determine all issues relating to the case.[62] While the case was pending before the Supreme Court, the police abducted Khalra. The Supreme Court ordered the CBI to investigate the abduction and under Article 32 of the Constitution, gave the NHRC an open order to investigate disappearances the NHRC to investigate allegations of mass illegal cremations in Punjab on 12th December 1996[63]. Though the case is still pending before the Commission for final consideration, the Commission has recommended compensation of Rs. Two lakh fifty thousand to each of the next of kin of 195 deceased identified to be in the custody of police and Rs. One lakh seventy-five thousand to each of next of kin of 1103 identified persons whose dead bodies were cremated by the police, amounting to Rs. 24,27,25,000.[64] Compensation is granted based on the jurisprudence developed by Indian courts relating to legal standards for remedial, reparatory, punitive, and exemplary damages for human rights violation.[65] It further acknowledges that monetary or pecuniary compensation is a proper, effective and sometimes maybe the only remedy for redressing the infringement the basic human rights of a citizen by public servants and the State. [66] According to the Commission, the claim of citizens who are affected is based on the principle of strict liability, where the citizen must invariably receive comp ensation, and the defense of sovereign immunity is not available[67]. B. KALAHANDI AND RIGHT TO FOOD CASE IN ORISSA: The NHRC has since long maintained that right to food is inherent to living a life with dignity. It has also expressed that right to food includes nutrition at an appropriate level. [68] Since December 1996, the Commission has been dealing with complaints alleging starvation deaths in Koraput, Bolangir and Kalahandi districts of Orissa. The case started in 1996 when the when the Commission took cognizance of a letter from Mr., Chaturanan Mishra, the then Union Minister of Agriculture, with respect to deaths caused by starvation after the drought in the Bolangir district of Orissa.[69] On December 23rd, 1996, under Article 32 a writ petition was filed by the Indian Council of Legal Aid and Advice and others, before the Supreme Court. In the petition deaths by starvation was alleged and that it continued to occur in certain districts of Orissa. [70]On 26th July 1997, it was pointed out by the Supreme Court, that since the matter had been seized with the NHRC and the NHRC was likely to deliver a direction in this case, the petitioner should approach the Commission.[71] The Commission acted immediately and prepared interim measures for a two-year period. Further it requested the State Government of Orissa to constitute a Committee for inspection of all aspects of the land reform question in the affected districts.[72] For monitoring the progress of implementation of its directions, a Special Rapporteur was also appointed. The Commission came to the conclusion that starvation deaths reported from some pockets of the country were most certainly as a result of the consequence of mis-governance resulting from acts of omission or commission on the part of public servants. [73] It was firmly stated that ‘to be free from hunger is not only a fundamental right of the citizens of India, but is also a basic human right[74]. Starvation, hence, results in a gross denial and violation of this right. In order to ensure quality execution of Right to Food, the Commission has recommended setting up of Committees which would monitor the access and availability of food grains to the most vulnerable sections of the society.[75] After organizing a meeting with the leading experts on the issue of right to food, in January 2004, Commission approved the constitution of a Core Group on Right to Food. [76] This Core Group will have the power to advice on issues referred to it and also suggest appropriate measures, which can be undertaken by the Commission.[77] It has also issued the guidelines on the constitution and functioning of such committees to all the State governments and the Central Ministries.[78] If these committees are implemented in a proper manner, they can act as Watch Committees, paving the way for a ‘hunger free India. Further the Commission has also drafted a National Action Plan on Right to Food, and is also seriously monitoring malnutrition in Maharashtra.[79] The manner in which the Commission has dealt with the above two cases, has firmly established that in India, both the courts and the Commission are beginning to treat the economic, social and cultural rights are being treated at par with civil and political rights. India is the few countries in the world to have accorded justiciability of economic, social, and cultural rights.[80] VI. CONCLUSION Though every nation has its own priorities and goals to achieve, there are certain minimum standards which they are expected to fulfill, in order to meet their international human rights obligations and the larger world order. The Paris Principles, adopted by the General Assembly is the edifice on which national human rights institutions have been set up. A free and fully autonomous national institution is the best guarantor for the protection of human rights within the domestic sphere and the National Human Rights Commission of India is fully conscious of the same. It is evident from the preceding sections that with the advent of National Human Rights Commission, human rights protection has taken a leap in India. Inspite doubts about the Commissions independent functioning, it has surprised both the domestic and international community with its decisive and credible actions. The Commission, ever since its inception, has always tried to expand the reach of its jurisdiction, and has b een seriously engaged in the protection of economic and social rights. It has dealt with number of issues like right to food, right to clean drinking water, right to shelter, right to health, right against discrimination etc. However, there are areas where there are avenues for improvisation. The Commission must be able to provide concrete remedies to the hapless victims, and must be vested with explicit powers of prosecuting delinquent public servants in case it finds sufficient evidence of violation human rights. Further it must also be empowered to refer any person for prosecution who for no reason obstructs the functioning of the Commission. This will provide teeth to the system.[81] It is only then that the Commission will be able to investigate cases in a proper manner. Given the fact that the task of protecting and preserving the human rights in the India is task of huge magnitude, the Commission needs to prioritize its work if it seeks to be an effective institution. Hence the Commission needs to identify concrete goals, methodologies which could help them in attaining and accomplishing their goals. Also there is a need to set time-frames within which the goals are to be met. Further, since the implementation of the recommendations of the Commissions by the government is vital to the Commissions success, there should be a â€Å"statutory ensurement† that the NHRCs recommendations will be faithfully considered by the government[82]. Hence the Commission should be vested with enforceable powers to ensure that its decisions and recommendations are implemented. It is only then that the Commission can truly become and remain an effective agent for promoting and protecting human rights of teeming millions. V. BIBLIOGRAPHY PRIMARY SOURCES Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993 Principles Relating to the Status of National Institutions (or the Paris Principles) Punjab Mass Cremation Order, 19 April 2005 National Human Rights Commission of India, Report from Forum Members presented by Dr. Justice Shivaraj V. Patil, 1st August 2006 Amnesty International Report, India: Torture, Rape, and Deaths in Custody, AI Index: ASA 20/006/1992, 1992. SECONDARY SOURCES BOOKS AND JOURNALS Abul Hasnat Monjurul Kabir, Establishing National Human Rights Commissions In South Asia: A Critical Analysis Of The Processes And The Prospects, Asia-Pacific Journal On Human Rights And The Law, 2001, Volume 2, Number 1, 1-53. Anne Smith, The Unique Position of National Human Rights Institutions: A Mixed Blessing?, Human Rights Quarterly 28 (2006) 904-946. B.P. Singh Sehgal, Human Rights in India: Problems and Perspectives, New Delhi, 1st ed., 1999. C. Raj Kumar, National Human Rights Institutions: Good Governance Perspectives on Institutionalization of Human Rights, 19 Am. U. Intl L. Rev. 259, 2003 C.J. Nirmal, Human Rights in India: Historical, Social, and Political Perspectives, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 3rd ed., 2004. Dr. Ashwini and Kataria, Law Relating to the Protection of Human Rights, Orient Publishing Company, 2nd ed., New Delhi, 2005. Jaskaran Kaur, A Judicial Blackout: Judicial Impunity for Disappearances in Punjab, India, 15 Harv. Hum. Rts. J. 269. Justice J.S. Verma, The New Universe of Human Rights, Universal Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd, Delhi, 2004. M. Kumar Sinha, Implementation of Basic Human Rights, Manak Publications, New Delhi, 1999. Mohd. Shabbir, Quest for Human Rights, Rawat Publications, New Delhi, 1st ed., 2005. Performance Legitimacy: National Human Rights Institutions, SSRN BOOK Sankar Sen, Human Rights and Law and Enforcement, Concept Publishing Co., New Delhi, 1st ed., 2002. Vijayashri Sripati, Indias National Human Rights Commission: A Shackled Commission?, 18 B.U. Intl L.J. 1, 2000. INTERNET SOURCES: Andrew Byrnes, Andrea Durbach and Catherine Renshaw, Joining the club: the Asia Pacific Forum of National Human Rights Institutions, the Paris Principles, and the advancement of human rights protection in the region, http://ssrn.com/abstract=1397466. Dr Subhash C Jain, The Commonwealth and Human Rights: An Indian Perspective, Commonwealth Law Bulletin, 1999 available at www.rcs.ca/colloquium/Jain.doc (Last visited on March 31, 2010) Excerpts from NHRC India Paper for Universal Periodic Review, available at, http:/

Comparing Edgar Allen Poes The Cask of Amontillado, The Black Cat, and

Comparing Edgar Allen Poe's The Cask of Amontillado, The Black Cat, and The Tell-tale Heart The short stories of Edgar Allen Poe demonstrate the author's ample gifts in the psychology of the mind, regardless of the fact he was decades ahead of Freud.   Poe's short stories are often from the deranged and murderous point-of-view of the narrator, who often illustrates the inner-workings of his own psychology and the disintegration of the self brought about by psychological disorders, aberrations, and other factors (anxiety, substance abuse, etc.).   Perhaps two main factors omnipresent in the Poe psychological realm are substance abuse (i.e. alcoholism) and taphophobia (exaggerated fear of being buried alive). In short stories like The Cask of Amontillado, The Black Cat, and The Tell-tale Heart, Poe constructs a psychological world where alcoholism and the fear of being buried alive are inextricably intertwined.   So, too, the combination of them has an impact on the narrators and characters in his stories.   Poe's own alcoholism and taphophobia are inextricably intertwined in the psyche of his narrators and/or characters. In all three of these short stories, the narrator an... ...xacerbates the psychological symptoms being manifested due to taphophobia.   Yet, these stories amply demonstrate Poe's own preoccupation with alcohol and drinking as well as his neurosis with respect to being buried alive.  Ã‚   References Anonymous.   (2001). Criteria for Substance Dependence Diagnosis.   DSM-II-R, NIDA, Available: http://www.nida.gov/DSR.html, 1-3. Anonymous.   (2001). Let's talk facts about phobias.   APA, Available: http://www.guggenheim.yourmd.com, 1-4. Poe, E. A.   (1966). Complete Stories and Poems of Edgar Allen Poe.   New York, NY: Doubleday & Company, Inc.

British Empire Essay -- British English History

THE BRITISH EMPIRE The British Empire was the largest empire in history and for a time was the foremost global power. It was a product of the European age of discovery, which began with the maritime explorations of the 15th century, that sparked the era of the European colonial empires. By 1921, the British Empire held sway over a population of about 458 million people, approximately one-quarter of the world's population. It covered about 36.6 million km ² (14.2 million square miles), about a quarter of Earth's total land area. As a result, its legacy is widespread, in legal and governmental systems, economic practice, militarily, educational systems, sports, and in the global spread of the English language. At the peak of its power, it was often said that "the sun never sets on the British Empire" because its span across the globe ensured that the sun was always shining on at least one of its numerous colonies or subject nations. During the five decades following World War II, most of the territories of the Empire became independent. Many went on to join the Commonwealth of Nations, a free association of independent states. This astonishing empire was never undone in the way that the Roman Empire was: instead it dissolved peacefully, by mutual consent, and the British, apart from creating the world's largest empire, also had the privilege of being the only empire builders not to be destroyed in their far flung empire itself. ORIGINS UNDER ELIZABETH I The first moves by the British to establish an empire came during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I (1558-1603). Elizabeth was a far-sighted sovereign who financially supported the voyages of exploration, mainly through her favorite, Sir Francis Drake, who in 1580, became the first... ...FORMER OTTOMAN TERRITORY IN MIDDLE EAST The outcome of the First World War in 1919, saw the British Empire at its height: the Treaty of Versailles gave Britain most of the German Empire in Africa, while the collapse of the Ottoman Empire in the Middle East led to the British acquisition of Palestine and Iraq in 1918. DISSOLUTION OF THE EMPIRE AFTER WORLD WAR II The British Empire only finally started dissolving after the First World War, with the process being speeded up dramatically in the aftermath of the Second World War. The primary reason for the dissolution of the empire was economic and political rather than racial: after the Second World War, Britain was simply too impoverished to continue holding on to an empire created in a previous century, and it was easier to grant independence to the far flung colonies, especially when some of these turned violent.